‘Exploring the role of effort and impulsivity in reversal learning’ 

Brief introduction

One of the main characteristics of human behaviour is its flexibility. We must be able to detect regular patterns in our environment, and also be sensitive to disruptions to those regularities, so that we can adapt our behaviour accordingly. Imagine that the bus you have been catching to work every morning for the last few years has been late for the last three days. The decision that you must make is whether this represents merely a temporary disruption of otherwise regular scheduling (say, due to road-works), or whether the bus timetable has changed altogether (such that it is no longer stopping at the previously scheduled time). In other words, you must detect whether this irregularity represents a temporary change in an otherwise stable environment, or whether it represents a fundamental change in the environment altogether. 

Individuals differ significantly in how fast they learn or adapt to these sorts of situations. The way in which decisions such as this are resolved by the brain has been studied with a paradigm known as ‘probabilistic reversal learning.’ Each of these terms refer to key aspects of the paradigm: 

1. Individuals are required to learn about the relative value of stimuli presented before them (e.g., which bus you prefer to catch) 

2. The values of these stimuli periodically reverse (i.e., the bus timetable changes). 

3. The values of the stimuli vary probabilistically (i.e., even the bus you usually prefer to catch may sometimes be late, but on average is better than the other alternative).

Using this paradigm, we now have significant insights into the neural circuitry and computational mechanisms which mediate adaptive human behaviour. Flexible learning is mediated by a neural network comprising the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia (Clark et al., 2004; Cools et al., 2002; Izquierdo et al., 2017, Peterson et al., 2009), and dopamine is a key neurotransmitter in this process of reversal learning. Importantly, a separate literature has revealed that dopamine is important, not only in learning, but is also critical for motivating individuals to exert effortful actions (Chong et al., 2015). Given the dual role of dopamine in motivating effortful actions, and in probabilistic reversal learning, this study will explore the relationship between effort exertion and learning. Specifically, we ask:

1. How probabilistic reversal learning can differ based on the amount of force that individuals must exert to register their responses. 

2. How personality differences (e.g., in impulsivity) are related to learning.  

You may have been a participant in this study, but, when writing your report, it is important that you write from the perspective of the researcher.

Design

This experiment involved two phases. In an initial phase, the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) for each participant was determined by squeezing each force dynamometer as hard as possible. Participants then undertook the learning task. Participants were presented with two abstract shapes, with one of these stimuli being more valuable on average than the other. The more valuable stimulus was rewarded 70% of the time, and the less valuable stimulus was rewarded 30% of the time. A rewarded stimulus was associated with a gain of one point, and an unrewarded stimulus was associated with no gain. The primary task was to learn which of the two stimuli was more valuable on every trial, and to accrue as many points as possible. Importantly, the relative value of the stimuli periodically reversed, such that the more valuable stimulus would then be worth less, and vice versa. Participants were instructed to detect when that change occurred, and switch their preferences accordingly. Stimuli were presented randomly to the left or right of fixation, and participants registered their preferences by squeezing the corresponding (left or right) dynamometer. Participants performed two blocks: one in which only a small force needed to be applied (5% of MVC), and the other in which a harder force was required to make a choice (30% MVC). The order of blocks was counterbalanced across participants.

Built into this design was a further experimental manipulation to examine whether the time at which participants exert a low or high force influenced learning on this task. Participants were divided into three groups (‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’). Participants in one group (‘A’) were only required to provide a single squeeze (with a high or low force) to register their choice and simultaneously receive feedback. In contrast, participants in Groups B and C were required to provide two squeezes. Those in Group B  exerted a high or low force to register their choice, and a low force to reveal the outcome. Those in Group C undertook the reverse manipulation, by always exerting low force to register their choice, but either a low or high force to reveal the outcome. For the purposes of this lab report, you should write-up the design that you personally experienced as a participant in this study (the experimenters should have informed you of the group you were assigned to at the end of the task).Those students who did not attend the experimental sessions should write-up the design as if they were in Group A.

In order to determine the relationship between learning and impulsivity, participants were administered the revised version of the UPPS Impulsive Behaviour Scale (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). This version, the UPPS-P, assesses five pathways: Negative Urgency, Positive Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, and Sensation Seeking (Cyders et al., 2007).

The key question of this study was whether there is a difference between learning rates when low or high amounts of force were applied. For the purposes of your lab report, you will answer: 

1. Was there a difference in the total number of points scored during the low and high force blocks? 

2. Was there a difference in the total accuracy during the low and high force blocks? 

3. Was there a correlation between the total number of points scored and scores on a questionnaire measure of impulsivity?

Starting References: You will be provided with a number of papers that will provide you with some background and a rationale for the study that will form the basis of the Biological Laboratory Report. Copies of these are available on the PSY2061 Moodle website. Please print and read the following papers and bring them with you to your Week 7 lab class. 

You do not need to understand the detail of the neuroimaging analyses or computational models.

Reference

Chong et al. (2015). Dopamine enhances willingness to exert effort for reward in Parkinson’s disease. Cortex, 69, 40-46.  (A study showing that dopamine administration increases the motivation to exert physical effort.)

Clark et al. (2004). The neuropsychology of ventral prefrontal cortex: Decision-Making and reversal learning. Brain and Cognition, 55(1), 42-53 (An overview of reversal learning in the context of decision making and ventral prefrontal function.)

Cools, R. et al. (2002). Defining the neural mechanisms of probabilistic reversal learning using evenrelated functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 22(11), 4563-4567 (One of the first human neuroimaging studies on probabilistic reversal learning.)

Cyders, M. A. et al. (2007). Integration of impulsivity and positive mood to predict risky behavior: Development and validation of a measure of positive urgency. Psychological Assessment, 19, 107–118. (Background on the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale. )

Izquierdo et al. (2017) The neural basis of reversal learning: An updated perspective. Neuroscience, 345, 12-26 (A good overview of reversal learning and is neurobiology, including dopamine.)

Peterson et al. (2009). Probabilistic reversal learning is impaired in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience, 163(4), 1092-1101 (Examined the role of dopamine in reversal learning.)

Whiteside, S. P., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). The Five Factor Model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences,30, 669–689 (Background on the original UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale.)

Research Paper Assignment

Multicultural Arts in the U.S.

Contemporary American artists address a wide range of topics relevant to us. These topics include: maintaining cultural traditions, racism today, struggles of immigrants, war, the environmental crisis, gender discrimination, and political controversies. Some artists explore subjects about racism and discrimination in America’s past. Others focus upon globalization or issues relevant to the country of their family’s origin. Creativity is used to express these concerns along with cultural identity.

How do artists address current topics in their artworks? In what ways do artists today include culture in art? Choose one contemporary artist from the list below to describe in your paper. I have included an image of one example of each artist’s work to begin to get your interest.

Please see the files, I will upload the original file at the bottom.

Write a research paper (1400 words minimum – PROVIDE A WORD COUNT), which includes the following:

1. An introduction to your topic. It would be possible to write an entire book about any of these artists. You will have to select some specific aspect of their work to discuss. Make sure to include a clear thesis statement. For example, you might find a common subject or theme the artist addresses. What do you have to say about this artist and his/her work? – Do NOT write a biography of the artist. Include biographical information relevant to the artist’s work, then expand upon your thesis and the artworks.
2. As best as possible, discuss the context(s) of the art you are addressing. What does the art reveal about culture, multiculturalism, the artist’s ethnic background or gender? Does the artwork address any current issues relevant to the artist or her/his community? Does the art address themes that are personally relevant to you? ***I encourage you to use information from personal interviews from the community. Include the name of the person that you interviewed and date in a Works Cited list. For example, if your paper is about an artist who addresses Korean immigration as a topic, you could interview a Korean-American friend at work for useful information. You might want to show some of the artist’s work to the person you are interviewing.
3. Pick representative examples of artworks by the artist to illustrate your thesis. Include images of the works you discuss. Identify, if possible, each of these works by title and date. Describe what you see depicted in the art. However, do not just describe the content of the art. Think about it. Describe how the artist uses color, images, material, composition, etc. to express themes in the art. Often an artist’s work draws on imagery from other sources or traditions. What are some of the sources for the work you are discussing? Why has the artist made these choices? Have fun and be creative!
4. Academic research papers must include notes/citations in the body of the text to show how sources are used to support the statements made. For example, if you state where an artist was born, how do you know? What is your source of information? You do not need to cite sources for things that are generally known or are your personal opinion. If you include a direct quote from a source, put it in quotation marks or blockquote format and cite your source. Quotes should not make up more than 20% of your paper.
5. Conclusion. What do you think about this artist’s work? How does it relate to the subject of the class? What have you learned about art by studying this work?
6. Include a bibliography (Works Cited list). Use at least four different (in addition to Wikipedia if you use) sources and use documentation (citations or notes) in the body of your paper to show how these sources are used. Do not use information or analysis from sources you do not cite and present it as your own. This is plagiarism and will not be tolerated.

***Remember to proofread. You will be marked down for poor grammar, spelling or careless writing. It might help to get someone else to read it such as an assistant in the Writing and Reading Center in order to get their feedback.

This discussion will focus on the following two readings:

• 7 Major Misperceptions About the Liberal Arts (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
• Employment outcomes in the four-year sector: The value of liberal arts degrees (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Once you have reviewed this material, please address the following question in your initial post of 300+ words, including at least 2 additional academic resources.

1. Explain what you see as the importance of a liberal arts education and how this relates to you.
2. Using the two additional resources you have located, discuss the relevance of a liberal arts education in the 21st century. Explain what these authors tell us and discuss how this is either a valid or an invalid argument in support of a liberal arts education and why or why not.

There are three principles of total quality: customer focus, continuous improvement, and teamwork. Using the South University Online Library, find three articles that describe current practices in healthcare organizations. Each article should illustrate one principle of total quality. Refer to professional journals such as Modern Healthcare, Provider Magazine, and Nursing Homes. Write a paper based on your review of the articles. Include the following in the paper:

• Describe each quality principle and show how it is illustrated in the article.
• Analyze the relationships among the three quality principles.
• Examine whether the principle in one example might apply to other examples.

Submission Details:

• cite your sources in your work and provide references for the citations in APA format.

hi

i need help with film paper. to do that you may see this film first https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErOHoTHBf7Q&=&oref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DErOHoTHBf7Q&=&has_verified=1

then to write the film paper you may need the file i have attached. please follow the instructions of the FILE CAREFULLY.

also, you may read from the book. everything in the file down.